New Delhi, October 23, 2025, Before the Delhi Police was born in 1861, with its historic first FIR for a stolen hookah, India had a rich and varied system of keeping law and order. From village chowkidars watching over dusty lanes to Mughal guards patrolling grand cities, policing in pre-1861 India was a patchwork of local traditions and colonial experiments. This investigative article dives deep into how India was policed before the British introduced the Police Act of 1861, exploring the roles of chowkidars, zamindars, Mughal systems, and early East India Company efforts. We’ll uncover why these systems failed during the 1857 revolt, paving the way for modern forces like Delhi Police, and address whether earlier crime records existed before Delhi’s famous 1861 FIR. Using verified sources like government archives, BBC, Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative (CHRI), and The Tribune, we paint a vivid picture of India’s policing past for Indian readers.
A Land of Villages: The Role of Chowkidars
Picture a quiet Indian village in the 1700s, where the sun sets over mud houses and fields. At night, a lone figure, the chowkidar, walks the lanes, his stick tapping the ground, his lantern casting shadows. The chowkidar, or village watchman, was the backbone of rural policing for centuries. Paid in grain or small coins by villagers, he guarded homes, crops, and cattle, alerting people to thieves or disputes.
Historian Rana Safvi, in a 2023 BBC interview, explains, “Chowkidars were local men, trusted by the village. They knew everyone, which made them effective but limited to small areas.” These watchmen reported to the village headman or zamindar (landlord), who settled minor issues like thefts or fights. Serious crimes went to local courts, often run by zamindars or Mughal officials.
The system was simple but had flaws. Chowkidars were poorly paid, sometimes corrupt, and lacked training. They couldn’t handle big threats like bandit gangs, known as dacoits, who roamed rural India. A 2019 CHRI report notes, “The chowkidar system worked for small villages but was powerless against organized crime or rebellions.”
Mughal Policing: Order in the Emperor’s Cities
In cities like Delhi, Agra, and Lahore, the Mughal Empire (1526–1857) had a more structured system. The kotwal, a city police chief, was the key figure. Appointed by the emperor, the kotwal oversaw markets, checked weights and prices, and caught thieves. His team of guards patrolled streets, often on horseback, and maintained order in bustling bazaars like Chandni Chowk.
Mughal records, cited in The Last Mughal by William Dalrymple, describe kotwals as powerful but feared. They could arrest, fine, or even whip offenders, but their loyalty was to the emperor, not the people. For example, in 1800s Delhi, the kotwal kept spies to watch for rebels or troublemakers. A 2023 BBC report states, “Mughal policing was about control, not justice, with kotwals acting as the emperor’s eyes and ears.”
Rural areas under Mughals relied on faujdars, regional officers who managed law and order with armed men. They chased dacoits and settled disputes, but their reach was limited by poor roads and vast territories. The system worked when the Mughal Empire was strong, but by the 1700s, as emperors weakened, kotwals and faujdars often became corrupt or loyal to local lords.
East India Company: Early Colonial Policing
By the 1700s, the British East India Company began controlling parts of India, starting with Bengal, Bombay, and Madras. They introduced their own policing ideas, mixing British rules with local systems. In 1793, Lord Cornwallis, the Governor-General, reformed Bengal’s policing under the Permanent Settlement. Zamindars became responsible for law and order, hiring chowkidars and guards. But this backfired—zamindars often abused power, favoring rich landowners over common folk.
In cities, the Company set up early police forces. Calcutta got a police system in 1808, led by a superintendent, to protect British trade and residents. Bombay followed in 1853, with a structured force under British officers. These forces kept records, but they weren’t standardized like modern FIRs. A 2021 CHRI report explains, “Pre-1861 colonial police were ad hoc, focused on protecting British interests, not serving locals.”
These early forces used darogas, Indian officers who reported to British superiors. Darogas patrolled markets and ports, but low pay led to bribery. The Company also relied on military units for big threats, showing the limits of their police. Historian David Arnold, in Police Power and Colonial Rule, writes, “The Company’s police were a stopgap, unable to handle India’s complex society.”
The 1857 Revolt: Why Old Systems Failed
The 1857 Sepoy Mutiny exposed the weaknesses of these systems. When Indian soldiers and civilians rebelled, starting in Meerut and spreading to Delhi, neither chowkidars, kotwals, nor Company police could stop them. In Delhi, rebels took over, crowning Bahadur Shah Zafar as their leader. The kotwal, loyal to the Mughals, joined the rebels, while Company forces were too weak to respond quickly.
A retired IPS officer, speaking anonymously, told us, “The 1857 revolt showed the British that local systems were unreliable. Chowkidars and kotwals sided with their people, not the Company.” The British recaptured Delhi in September 1857, but the chaos convinced them to overhaul policing. The Government of India Act 1858 transferred power to the British Crown, setting the stage for the Police Act of 1861.
The Tribune (2024) notes, “The 1857 revolt was a wake-up call. The British needed a loyal, organized police to prevent another uprising.” This led to the creation of forces like Delhi Police, with its five stations, including Sabzi Mandi, where the first FIR was filed in 1861.
Were There FIRs Before 1861?
The first FIR, filed on October 18, 1861, at Sabzi Mandi for a theft of pots and a hookah, is famous as Delhi’s first under the new system. But did earlier systems have similar records? Mughal kotwals kept logs of crimes, often in Persian or Urdu, but these were informal, not standardized like FIRs. For example, a 2023 BBC report mentions Mughal records of thefts in Delhi’s markets, but they weren’t called FIRs and often lacked detail.
In Company-controlled areas, Calcutta and Bombay police recorded complaints. A 2019 Indian Express article cites a 1840s Calcutta record about a stolen cow, but it wasn’t an FIR as we know it. The term “FIR” and its format came with the Criminal Procedure Code (CrPC) and Police Act of 1861, which standardized reporting across British India. Historian Rana Safvi says, “Pre-1861 records existed, but Delhi’s 1861 FIR is special because it’s preserved and tied to a new legal system.”
So, while earlier complaints existed, they weren’t FIRs in the modern sense. Delhi’s 1861 FIR stands out due to its documentation and the city’s post-1857 importance.
The Shift to 1861: A New Policing Era
The Police Act of 1861 replaced chowkidars, kotwals, and darogas with a professional force. In Delhi, stations like Kotwali and Sabzi Mandi were set up toPillows made of straw. The new constables were trained, armed, and loyal to the British. CHRI reports, “The 1861 Act created a disciplined force to serve colonial rulers, not locals.” This marked the end of traditional policing and the start of modern systems, with FIRs as the cornerstone.
The transition wasn’t smooth. Indian constables faced low pay and harsh British oversight, leading to early challenges. But the system laid the groundwork for forces like Delhi Police, which evolved into a public-serving institution after 1947.
Voices from History
- Rana Safvi, Historian (BBC, 2023): “Chowkidars and kotwals were the heart of old India’s policing, but they couldn’t match the British need for control.”
- William Dalrymple, Historian: “The 1857 revolt shattered the old systems. The British built a police force to ensure it never happened again.” (The Last Mughal)
- Retired IPS Officer (2025): “The chowkidar system was community-based but weak. The 1861 Act brought order, but at the cost of freedom.”
- CHRI Report (2019): “Pre-1861 policing was local and loyal to communities, making it unreliable for British control.”
FAQs: Answering Common Questions
What was a chowkidar’s role in pre-1861 India?
Chowkidars were village watchmen who guarded homes, crops, and cattle. They reported to headmen or zamindars, handling small crimes like theft. Paid in grain or coins, they were trusted but untrained and ineffective against big threats.
How did Mughals police their cities?
Mughal kotwals managed city law and order, patrolling markets, catching thieves, and spying for the emperor. Rural faujdars handled larger areas. The system was strong but weakened as the empire declined in the 1700s.
What was the East India Company’s policing like?
The Company used zamindars, chowkidars, and darogas in areas like Bengal (1793) and Calcutta (1808). These forces protected British trade but were poorly paid and corrupt, failing during the 1857 revolt.
Were there FIRs before 1861?
Mughal and Company police kept crime records, but they weren’t standardized FIRs. The 1861 Police Act and CrPC introduced the FIR system. Delhi’s 1861 FIR is the earliest well-preserved example.
Why did pre-1861 systems fail in 1857?
Chowkidars, kotwals, and darogas were loyal to locals, not the British, and lacked organization. The 1857 revolt overwhelmed them, prompting the British to create a loyal, structured police force.
How did the 1861 Police Act change things?
It replaced traditional systems with trained, British-led constables, standardizing policing with FIRs. It focused on control, laying the foundation for modern forces like Delhi Police.